, David Francisco Lafuente-Rincón2
HIGH VALUE OF BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS FROM CORIANDRUM
SATIVUM L FOR MULTIPLE BIOTHERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS
Norma M. De la Fuente-Salcido1, David Francisco Lafuente-Rincón2
1Autonomous University of Coahuila, Center for Interdisciplinary Studies and Research, Arteaga, Coahuila, 25354, Mexico.
2Autonomous University of Coahuila, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Torreón, Coahuila, 27275, Mexico.
Abstract
Currently, people demanding nutrient-rich food products that provide additional health benefits. In this sense, Coriandrum sativum L, the most consumed spice around the world increasing its popularity due to its high nutritional value and confirmed pharmacological effects. Bioactive compounds derived from coriander have a wide variety of medical and biotherapeutic applications that extend beyond their well-established gastronomic relevance. Here, the information currently available on the presence, diversity, and extraction methods of the main components of coriander are reviewed. The multiple benefits of include cilantro in the diet and its effect on the treatment of global impact chronic diseases of such as cancer, heart disease, Alzheimer's disease, diabetes, kidney disease, cerebrovascular diseases, among others, are also highlighted. Likewise, the primary biological activities of coriander are detailed, such as antioxidant capacity and antimicrobial activity derived from specific phytochemicals.
This update shows the composition and describe the mixture of bioactive constituents included in the herbaceous plant and/or extracts, emphasizing the biological functions mainly as antimicrobial agents and its confirmed antioxidant function. Coriander is a reservoir of bioactivities combined, with promising potential to use and/or increase health and promote well-being.
Keywords: Antimicrobial, antioxidant, coriander, phytochemicals.
INTRODUCTION
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) is a potential source of high-value compounds and is globally recognized for its multiple beneficial health effects, such as natural antioxidant and antimicrobial capabilities that have been successfully studied and confirmed, primarily in the fields of medicine and the food industry1.
In this review, a brief overview of the chemical composition of Coriander leaves and seeds as well as the biological importance of phytochemical components, is summarized. In addition, concepts about the oxidation and reduction processes and/ or microbial control are contextualized to explain how the phytochemicals compounds of coriander act as natural antioxidant and/or antimicrobial agents. Likewise, several important investigations that successfully evidenced the effectiveness of highlighted several important investigations that have successfully demonstrated the effectiveness of coriander phytochemicals under various experimental conditions for food preservation and medical treatments.
Corianderis a widely cultivated crop. Generally known as a popular herb, it is characterized by being an erect plant with pronounced main root, slender stems with develop branching grow up between 20 to 70 cm in height. Crop maturity is reached approximately 2 to 3 months, after that is harvested including the thin roots1.
The taxonomic data of the PLANTS database from the United States Department of Agriculture2, provides standardized information that describes coriander as a flowering plant of the Magnoliophyta division, Magnoliopsida class, Rosidae subclass and Apiales order. The genus Coriandrum L. and the species Coriandrum sativum L. belong to the Apiaceae family, also known as the Carrot family.
It is important to know the differences between both C. sativum species, vulgare and microcarpum. In the vulgare variety produces larger fruits than the microcarpum, while the vulgare variety has lower yields of essential oils (0.1-0.35% (v/w)) than the microcarpum (0.8-1.8% (v/w)3,4. The uses of C. sativum are well known in global gastronomy, food preservation, traditional medicine, and natural therapies. The coriander as a therapeutic herb date back to prehistoric times, long before these properties were attributed to its diverse range of bioactive phytochemical components. This review includes a comprehensive overview of the taxonomic classification of coriander, the nutritional and phytochemical profile of the species, and emphasizes the chemical compounds with important biological activities, such as antimicrobial and antioxidant properties Likewise, some generalities are included about the pharmacological properties of the coriander plant that are involved in health care and the well-being of the population.
Phytochemicals brief overview
Plants in general, including coriander, synthesize primary and secondary metabolites. Plant growth is driven by primary metabolites; on the other hand, secondary metabolites, while not essential for the general development of the plant, are crucial for adaptation and chemical protection processes. Plant secondary metabolites are called phytochemical compounds, characterized by their broad biological activities.
The type and concentration of phytochemicals synthesized by plants are determined by the species, genotype, physiology, stage of development, and environmental conditions during growth5. Phytochemicals, or chemicals in plants, play an important role in their growth and development, but these are also the best source of bioactive compounds when included in people´s diets.
According to their chemical structure, two main groups of phytochemicals can be distinguished. The first is a very diverse group that includes non-phenolic compounds such as carotenoids, tocopherols, phytosterols, and organo-sulfur. The second group includes phenolic compounds. Phenolic compounds are mainly isolated from leaves and seeds and are the most studied and reported in plant research6. Specifically, polyphenolic compounds are the main components found in aqueous extracts of coriander leaves7.
Plant phenolics compounds, such as carotenoids, anthocyanins, and tocopherols, have been used in different medical studies confirming their beneficial impact on human health. For instance, some antioxidant properties found in plants are attributed to vitamins, anthocyanins, phenolics and tannins8. Regarding flavonoids, the main identified groups are flavonols, including quercetin, kaempferol, isorhamnetin, and cyanidin as the most representative. These flavonols differ significantly in qualitative and quantitative profiles between species. Flavonoids such as flavones, isoflavones, flavonoids, flavonols, flavanones, and anthocyanins also have significant antioxidant activity9.
Flavonoids and linalool are the main bioactive compounds in the water-soluble extracts of coriander and have a significant anxiolytic effect10. Non-flavonoids or phenolic acids (benzoic and cinnamic compounds) are found in very low concentrations, can be present bound, and especially in the free form. Other compounds such as stilbenes, tannins, lignins, and lignans, also exhibit beneficial effects on health, due to their antioxidant properties11,12.
Occurrence and role of major constituents of coriander
In recent decades, scientific reports on the phytochemistry of coriander have increased and diversified. Therefore, this review highlights the importance of phytochemical composition of coriander, as well as the contribution of every component to the attractive nutritional content and its impact on human health13. The above includes a description of the specific biological activities of coriander´s main components, as well as therapeutic applications. These characteristics have generated greater attraction among habitual consumers of this spice and have led to an increase in the number of scientific investigations in recent years. First, it is important to note that there is a lot of confusion in the common nomenclature of the herb, such as cilantro or coriander, in different places around the world. While the herb is recognized as coriander in the United Kingdom, in the United States, the fresh herb is called cilantro, but the seeds are commonly known as coriander. Cilantro and coriander are undoubtedly two coined names for the same herb, and both are correct. Here, the term C. sativum refers to both parts of the plant equally, and when a specific part of the plant is discussed, the terms cilantro or coriander seed will be used. The actual differences considered here focus on the chemical or phytochemical composition of the leaves, stems and seeds, whether fresh or dehydrated14. Both the seeds and the fresh leaves of this small apiaceous herb contain a wide range of chemical components (nutrients) with unique properties that are directly associated with the nature and quantity of each constituent15.
Coriander not only provides nutrients but also a large amount of heterogeneous phytochemicals (non-nutrients) that have been beneficial for well-being and preserving health since ancient times (460–377 BC)16. Sometimes these phytochemicals are inappropriately recognized as phytonutrients, however they are not essential such as fats, proteins, minerals and vitamins17. Table 1 show the outstanding nutritional value of coriander seeds and fresh leaves (per 100 g) (USDA National Nutrient data base.
Since the 1990s, more than 5,000 phytochemicals have been detected and identified, however, many of them have not been adequately studied to take advantage of the many benefits they could bring to human health18,19.
Phytochemicals are recognized for providing plants with unique organoleptic properties, such as their color, taste, smell, and flavor20. The nature of phytochemical compounds is diverse; therefore, their classification is also complex, generally defined according to their origin, their synthesis during the stages of plant growth, or the composition of each plant product (grains, legumes, beans, fruits, herbs, nuts, roots, leaves, seeds)21.
In general, the thousands of phytochemicals identified are classified as primary metabolites (chlorophyll, amino acids, proteins, common sugars or simple carbohydrates, membrane lipids, pyrimidines and purines of nucleic acids) and secondary metabolites (alkaloids, terpenoids, phenolic compounds, lignins, plants steroids, curcumins, glucosides, flavonoids, saponins), according to their rolein the plant´s metabolism22. Plants synthesize a wide arsenal of secondary metabolites as part of their defense system and constitute a group of molecules with a broad diversity of functions in the plant23. These metabolites also provide plants with many beneficial properties for health of people who regularly consume them in the diet24,25.
Focusing on the essential nutrients of coriander, they are currently widely involved in the formulation and production of new foods, whether fortified with the vast number of nutritional components (vitamins, minerals, proteins, fibers, among others), as well as functional and nutraceutical foods. These essential coriander compounds are also very important ingredients as a commercial strategy to enhance color and flavor in food products26. On the other hand, the beneficial effects of the consumption of phytochemicals considered non-nutritive compounds of coriander, have an important role in the generation of new biotherapeutics for the prevention of chronic diseases, and many other conditions that compromise human health and well-being, including the perspective of coriander agrobiotechnology27-31.
It is important to know that the bioavailability of essential dietary nutrients and non-nutrient phytochemicals related to coriander consumption can be influenced by several factors, such as maturity, part of the herb (root, leaves, flowers, seeds), different growth stages, cultivation conditions, phytochemical extraction method, food matrix incorporation, human microbiota, and physiological state of each consumer21,32.
Diversity of phytochemicals in coriander
The plant essential oils (EOs) generally contain two chemical constituents: terpenes and phenyl-propanoids33. The first group is classified into terpenes with a hydrocarbon structure, including monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, and their oxygenated by-products (acids, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, phenols, esters, oxides and lactones)34. The second group comprises phenylalanine-derived molecules (C6-C3) such as flavonoids (anthocyanins, flacons, flavonones, flavanols and flavanonols, condensed tannins, and lignans), as well as non-flavonoids (non-carboxylic phenols, phenolic acids), which possess useful biological activities for medical applications35.
The phytochemical composition of coriander herb is similar to essential oil (EO) constituents, and additionally contains tannins, terpenoids, reducing sugars, alkaloids, phenols, flavonoids, fatty acids, sterols, and glycoside. The main components responsible for the characteristic odor of the herb are characterized by the presence of chemical groups such as various types of monoterpenes (oxide, alcohol, carbonyl, hydrocarbon, ester), aliphatic compounds (alcohol, aldehyde, hydrocarbon), phenolic compounds (phenols), sesquiterpenes, as well as some minor compounds such as acetic acid and α -p dimethyl styrene36,37.
The essential oil of coriander is rich in phytochemicals, and the most recent quantitative analysis indicates the following compounds in mg/g: linalool (256.65) as main compound, α-pinene (19.85), geranyl acetate (15.76), γ-terpinene (12.08), camphor (8.51), p-cymene (6.10), geraniol (5.78), myrcene (3.25), limonene (2.90), sabinene (1.15), citronellal (0.77), borneol (0.76), geranial (0.60), neryl acetate (0.31), neral (0.28), eucalyptol (0.15), caryophyllene (0.06), thymol (< 0.01), carvacrol (< 0.01), α-terpineol (< 0.01), nerol (< 0.01).
In recent years, advanced methods have been applied to extract new phytochemicals in plants such as coriander and its extracts. The heneicos-1-enes are new molecules isolated through chromatography38. Furthermore, sophisticated nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques have enabled structural resolution with the support of high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). Likewise, the increase in the extraction yield of the heneicos was increased using techniques like ionic liquid-based microwave-assisted extraction (IL-MAE) and the application of the response surface methodology39. Microwave-assisted extraction based on ionic liquid is a fast and environmentally friendly extraction method applied to secondary metabolites in medicinal plants, in this case, coriander. Additionally, it is one of the unconventional extraction methods that has been developed and rapidly applied in recent years40. In general, heneicos-1-ene belongs to the class of organic compounds known as unsaturated hydrocarbons; they are aliphatic hydrocarbons that contain one or more unsaturated carbon atoms. These compounds, with a molecular formula of C21H42, contain one or more double or triple bonds and a molecular weight of 294.567 g/moL41.
The value of the bioactive compounds of Coriandrum sativum L treated in this manuscript are increased by molecules of heneicos-1-ene due to the outstanding potential to eradicate free radicals and proven antibacterial activity, as same as molecules isolated from coriander foliage, as confirmed by modern scientific studies42.
Extraction of bioactive compounds from plant extracts
Coriander oil is a natural compound, and its availability is extensive. Methods for oil extraction are very diverse and include both, traditional and modern techniques. Traditional and modern methods commonly applied for oil extraction, as well as the fundamental and general processes are briefly described in Table 242-55.
Methods for the extraction of phytochemicals from coriander
The most popular methods for EOs extraction are still solvent extraction and steam distillation because they are relatively inexpensive, safe, and can provide a high-quality end product46. After extraction, chemical identification and accurate quantification of the molecules contained in EOs are performed using Gas Chromatography coupled to Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), High Resolution Gas Chromatography (GC-FID), and High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) techniques51.
It is important to note that that the success of EOs extraction depend on the type of method(s) and operating conditions selected for the process. Modern Green Extraction (MGE) methods have been reported to provide advantages in terms of performance compared to traditional methods (hydrodistillation) and improved selectivity compared to Soxhlet extraction56.
To achieve the extraction of EOs from Coriander, traditional methods (hydrodistillation, solid-liquid extraction) were compared with modern methods (supercritical fluid extraction -SCFE-and subcritical water extraction -SCWE-). The comparison show yields of primary compounds (γ-(+)-limonene, terpinene, geraniol, camphorandlinalool). Soxhlet extraction provides high proportions of oxygenated monoterpenes (camphor, geraniol, and linalool) in seeds, while the extraction yields of γ- terpinene and (+)-limonene were higher with MGE SFE, which contained high levels of camphor, geraniol and linalool45.
The variations in EOs of coriander fruits depend not only on the extraction methods but also on the concentration of phytochemicals, which is directly related to the stage of growth or maturity, the season of herb harvest, and the prevailing climate and environmental conditions in the region of growth1.
Regarding the growth of coriander, the quantity of Eos varies with the maturity stage of the herb, especially in the seeds43. The linalool, the main component in coriander, increases as the herb grows, ranging from 36% during the first (flowering) stage to 78% during the last stage (maturity). These variations have also been confirmed in crop yields in different regions of the world2,57.
Outstanding biological activities of coriander
Antioxidant capacity of Coriander
During the metabolic processes of cells, biochemical reactions can generate free radicals, which are considered an oxidative process that needs to be controlled to avoid endangering cell function and integrity. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) can be produced, generating oxygen ions, free radicals and peroxides, reactive species derived from oxygen that cause ovidative stress. Reactive nitrogen species (RNS) can also be produced, such as nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, among others, causing nitrosative stress58,59.
Free radicals can accumulate in cells and damage DNA, certain lipids and proteins, causing significant harmful effects on human health, and promoting the development of chronic degenerative diseases60. This has generated enormous interest in developing scientific research, including epidemiological research, to counteract the effects of oxidative and nitrosative stress. Naturally, cells react by counteracting ROS through enzymatic mechanisms (catalase -CAT-, superoxide dismutase -SOD- glutathione peroxidase -GPX-) and non-enzymatic mechanisms (vitamins E and C, flavonoids, among others).
However, to help counteract the body's natural oxidation process, antioxidants can be acquired through diet. Vegetable consumption with being an important source of antioxidants such as polyphenols to neutralize free radicals58,61. Polyphenols are capable of transferring electrons from the hydroxyl groups of their molecule, exerting an antioxidant action by reducing thefree radicals in the environment62. Medicinal plants such as cilantro, in particular the extract of the oil from the seeds, are a source of potent antioxidant properties that have been investigated for their valuable biotherapeutic potential63.
The antioxidant properties of cilantro are associated with or derived from polyphenolic and flavonoid compounds, and some others bioactive compounds. Especially the essential oil of coriander, linalool, has enormous antioxidant properties that neutralize the effect of lipid oxidation and/or lipid peroxidation64.
Table 3 summarizes several representative studies of the potential and confirmed antioxidant capacity of coriander and/or some of its constituents64-74.
The high natural antioxidant properties of coriander constituents in EOs extract are widely used in the food industry protection, as substitutes for dangerous synthetic/chemical antioxidants. These chemical antioxidants traditionally including butylhydroxy-anisole, butylhydroxytoluene, tertbutyl hydroxyl-quinone and propyl gallate65.
Likewise, the table shows the activity exerted and the assessments carried out to determine its effect by any of the action mechanisms (Radical scavenging activity, Ferric reducing ability of plasma, Nitric oxide radical scavenging, among others).
Antimicrobial activity derived from Coriander
Currently, pharmaceuticals, mostly synthetic drugs, are the dominant therapeutic agents in modern medicine. However, the phytomedicinal drugs derived from plants, are becoming more popular as a potential alternative strategy against antimicrobial resistance. In this regard, the WHO reports clearly show that more and more countries are recognizing the role of traditional and complementary medicine in their national health systems. The WHO strives to implement and follow up the WHO Traditional Medicine Strategy 2014-2023 worldwide.
Coriander is a globally important crop used as a vegetable, spice, fragrance, and traditional medicine57. Also, coriander has been used since ancient times for its ability to control various organisms due to its recognized antibacterial activity. In general, antimicrobial activity refers to the process of killing or inhibiting disease-causing micro-organisms, mostly bacteria. Many antimicrobial agents are used to reduce or eliminate microbial growth by different modes of action and mechanisms. Anti-microbials can be antibacterial, antifungal, or antiviral, and they all have different modes of action by which they act to suppress the infection. The antimicrobials act on specific targets identified as nucleic acids synthesis, cell wall synthesis (peptidoglycan), and structural and/or functional damage to the cell membrane by depolarization, disruption or permeability75. Human mycosis is one of the most important health problems worldwide. However, abundant research in the field of antifungal drug fungal treatment research slowly than bacterial infections control. The common antifungal activity may include the inhibition of ergosterol synthesis by lanosterol 14-α demethylase activity in fungal endoplasmic reticulum (azoles). Also, antifungals binding to ergosterol causing disruption of the fungal cell membrane (polyenes), and the inhibition of (1,3) β-D-glucan synthase stops glucan synthesis (echinocandins). The fungistatic nature of many popular antifungals and the emergence of resistance limit their success, and new approaches to fungal treatment are being sought.
These new approaches include phytochemical screening in medicinal plants to isolate bioactive compounds as therapeutic tools against fungal diseases. In this regard, linalool has shown in vitro antifungal activity against Candida albicans, and inhibits activity in 1, 3 beta-glucan synthase, lanosterol 14 alfa-demethylase, and delta 14-esterol reductase, damaging the cell wall and plasmatic membrane in fungi75-77. Also, both clinical investigations and in vivo experiments have confirmed the antifungal activity of flavonoids78,79. The efficacy of linalool against L. monocytogenes in the planktonic stage and biofilm formation has been explored, as well as its putative mechanism of action. The evidence shown strong anti-listeria activity in the planktonic stage by linalool80.
Table 4 summarizes several representative studies of the potential and confirmed antimicrobial capacity of coriander and/or some of its constituents81,82-90.
Coriander´s multiple health benefits
In recent years, coriander and its phytochemical components have been studied from a medical perspective primarily for their great potential to promote health as curative agents for therapeutic managementof many diseases. As mentioned above, phytochemical content of coriander is linked to its biological functions,so high expectations for the use of coriander in biotherapeutic treatments against chronic and degenerative diseases10. Chronic diseases, both in developing and developed countries, encompass a wide range of medical conditions, including cancer, heart disease, Alzheimer's disease, diabetes, kidney disease, and cerebrovascular diseases, among others.
In this context, the World Health Organization (WHO) reports cancer as the second leading cause of death worldwide, with an estimated 9.6 million deaths, or one in six deaths, in 201865. Additionally, statistically, the American Cancer Association estimated 1.8 million new cancer cases in 2020, unfortunately resulting in approximately 606,520 cancer-related deaths in the United States. In 2024, 2,001,140 new cancer cases and 611,720 cancer deaths are projected to occur in this country91. The anticancer effect of coriander has been confirmed, specifically by affecting the survival of the cells and triggering apoptosis, thereby impacting the invasive and colony formation properties of different cell lines, such as prostate cancer92, breast cancer93, human colon cancer, and ovarian carcinoma94.
Heart and cardiovascular diseases (HCVDs) are the leading cause of death globally according to the WHO, with an estimated 17.9 million deaths each year95. The HCVDs include heart disorders of the heart and blood vessels and encompass coronary heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, rheumatic heart disease and other conditions. In the treatment of heart disease, coriander extract can lower blood pressure as well as reduce other heart disease risk factors such as bad cholesterol levels96. Also, coriander seeds can create a significant decrease low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and increase high-density lipoprotein (HDL). The above indicates a previously reported hypolipidemic effect and decreases in cholesterol synthesis. Cholesterol significantly increases the risk of developing cardiovascular heart diseases and mortality97.
The treatment of chronic diseases such as Alzheimer's is very varied and, at the same time, very exhausting for patients and their families. In recent years, physicians have sought natural alternatives for biotherapeutic treatment, and coriander leads a very promising application. For example, the inhalation of coriander volatile oil reduces oxidative stress in a beta-amyloid (1-42) rat model of Alzheimer´s disease98.
Nowadays, diabetes is a chronic (long-lasting) disease that affects the pathways used by the human body to metabolize food into energy. There are three main types of diabetes: type 1, type 2, and gestational diabetes (diabetes while pregnant). More than 122 million Americans are living with diabetes (34.2 million) or prediabetes (88 million)75. Many patients with diabetes mellitus consider medicinal plants such as coriander as complementary treatment forthis common chronic and metabolic disease and its derivative complications such as impaired wound healing99.
Coriander may stimulate endocrine glands and pancreatic insulin secretion to increase the level of insulin in the blood. In that way, coriander regulates the absorption and assimilation of sugar, resulting in a drop in blood sugar levels100. Coriander helps to reduce the risk of risky fluctuations in blood sugar llimits, and also promotes metabolic functions. The management of diabetes by effect of coriander can attenuate lipids, glucose and creatinine levels and decrease lipid peroxidation. In addition, it also increases the activity of antioxidant enzymes in patients101,102.
Neurodegeneration leading to cognitive deficits and a lack of cognitive capability in humans, for which there is no cure o preventive treatment currently, can potentially be addressed through traditional The essential oils of coriander contain a great amount of linalool, a phytochemical with bioactivity against the neurotoxic effects of beta amyloid 1-42 (Aβ1-42), which is mainly responsible for the functional loss in neuronal cells such as cell viability, synaptic function and neuronal network activity103. Regarding older adults and the promotion of the quality of life to reach independence for people as they age, the coriander has significant value104.
CONCLUSIONS
Coriander is phytochemical-rich herbaceous, and maybe the most popular and economically valuable spice worldwide. The recent rise in popularity is due to their multiple health benefits linked to the phytochemicals/bioactive compounds with a broad spectrum regarding to phytochemical and biological activities. These activities include antimicrobial and antioxidant properties to develop anticancer, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, hypo-tensive among others. Undoubtedly, the coriander is excellent source of pharmaceuticals, and could be efficiently extracted and studied in vitro or in vivo to be applied according to their phytochemical diversity, as well as, by the wide variety of beneficial effects exerted on nutrition and human health to well-being promotion and enhance the healthy aging conditions. Multiple scientific research about plethora of bioactivities from coriander, their medical applications to promote the well-being and enhance the healthy aging, undoubtedly could be getting closer to benefiting the world's population health.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
None to declare.
AUTHOR’S CONTRIBUTION
De la Fuente-Salcido NM: writing original draft, investigation, analysis of data. Lafuente-Rincón DF: design and conceptualization of tables. Final manuscript was approved by both authors.
DATA AVAILABILITY
Upon request, the accompanying author can furnish the empirical data used to bolster the findings of the study.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
None to declare
REFERENCES
https://doi.org/10.2174/1573406418666211129103458